| dc.description.abstract | Cooling ponds offer many advantages as a means of closed cycle heat dissipation. These are simplicity, low maintenance.and power requirements, aesthetic and possible recreational values, and high thermal inertia. A cooling pond is also subject to minimal environmental problems, since fogging tends to be localized, blowdown water can be stored for long periods, and make-up water requirements are intermittent and often lower than for other closed systems. In s~pite of the above advantages it is presently estimated that less than one third of the closed cycle power stations. built in the next 30 years, will utilize cooling ponds. One reason for this is lack of land, but another reason is the lack of confidence in the ability of existing models to predict cooling pond performance under transient heat loads and meteorological conditions. The use of simple steady state models and various commonly used assumptions as to surface heat loss and circulation patterns can lead to differences of at least 100% in the predicted required land area. Physical models have severe limitations, and this uncertainty in design often results in the rejection of the cooling pond alternative, which may be a mistake from economic, aesthetic and environmental considerations. An analytical and experimental investigation of cooling ponds is conducted. The guiding principle of this investigation is that a cooling pond can be designed on a rational basis only if the desired pond behavior is first clearly defined and the important mechanisms of heat transfer both within the pond itself, and at the water surface, are isolated and quantified. An efficient pond has been defined in terms of maximum surface heat transfer and maximum response time; this leads to the requirement that a pond be capable of sustaining a vertical temperature stratification, that entrance mixing be a minimum, and that a skimmer wall intake be used. The various components of heat transfer at a water surface are discussed, and existing empirical formulae are reviewed. Existing formulae for predicting evaporative flux from an artificially heated water surface are found to be unsatisfactory. Field data indicates that commonly used formulae may predict evaporative losses that are too low by as much as 50% for a heavily loaded water surface. A new formulae is proposed which explicitly accounts for mass transfer due to free convection. This can be very significant at low wind speeds. The proposed formula for evaporative flux performs well both in the laboratory and the field. The effect of entrance mixing and density currents on both the steady state and transient behavior of a cooling pond is examined in the laboratory,,and where possible laboratory results are supported by field observations. It is concluded that the reduction of entrance mixing is a very significant factor in improving the pond performance. In a stratified pond density currents can be of paramount importance in distributing the heat to backwater areas, thus making the pond performance essentially independent of shape. Steady state analytical models and a numerical transient model for the prediction of cooling pond performance are developed. The steady state models demonstrate the effect of entrance mixing and different circulation patterns. The major components of the transient model are a relatively thin surface region with horizontal temperature gradients overlying a deeper subsurface region with vertical temperature gradients. The entrance mixing is determined using the Stolzenbach- Harleman surface jet model, and the M.I.T. reservoir model is used to simulate the subsurface behavior. Output is given in terms of transient surface temperature distribution (area under isotherms), transient vertical temperature distribution, and transient intake temperatures. The transient model has been tested in the laboratory, and against five years of field data on two ponds with completely different characteristics, with very satisfactory results. The input data required by the transient model are that which are available before the pond is built, i.e. the model is predictive. The transient mathematical model is relatively simple and inexpensive, with an execution time of less than 1 minute per simulated year on an IBM 370/155. Thus the model can be used as a design tool, or as a component of a management model which compares different heat disposal alternatives. Design considerations, such as design of outlet and intake, the use of internal diking, and the use of physical models are briefly discussed, and a design approach is recommended. | en_US |
