Readings

Haffner, Sebastian. The Meaning of Hitler. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983.

Ienaga, Saburo. The Pacific War, 1931-1945. Translated by Frank Baldwin. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978.

Iklé, Fred. Every War Must End. Rev. ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1991.

Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War. Translated by Rex Warner. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1972.

Miller, Steven E. et al., eds. Military Strategy and the Origins of the First World War. Rev. ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991.

Stoessinger, John. Nations at Dawn. 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994.

Lynn-Jones, Sean M., and Steven E. Miller, eds. The Cold War and After: Prospects for Peace. Expanded ed. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1993.

33 Hypothesis on the Causes of War

Bellak, Leopold. "Why I Fear the Germans" (op-ed). New York Times. April 4, 1990, p. A29.
Germany has a flawed national character. Fair? If not, what explains past German conduct? If true, is this satisfying?

Bellak, Leopold. "Responses." New York Times. May 10, 1990, p. A30.
Germany has a flawed national character. Fair? If not, what explains past German conduct? If true, is this satisfying?

Blainey, Geoffrey. "Dreams and Delusions of a Coming War." Chap. 3 in The Causes of War. 3rd ed. New York: Free Press, 1988, 35-56.
False optimism as a cause of war.

Brown, Michael E. "Introduction." In The International Dimensions of Ethnic Conflict. Edited by Michael E. Brown. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996, 1-31.
A survey of hypotheses on the causes of ethnic conflict.

Goldstein, Joshua S. "Feminism." In International Relations. New York: HarperCollins, 1994, 282-295.
A good basic summary of feminist arguments on the causes of war.

Harris, Louis. "The Gender Gulf." New York Times. December 7, 1990, p. A35.
The problem is: men? (Women are more dovish.)

Hedges, Chris. "In Bosnia's Schools, 3 Ways Never to Learn From History." New York Times. November 25, 1997, p. A1.
More about separate Balkan realities. It was once said that "war begins in the classroom." Is that such a silly notion? Do the Balkans' separate realities, and the Balkans' wars, stem from separate and divergent teachings of the past?

Jervis, Robert. "Hypotheses on Misperception." In International Politics: Anarchy, Force, Political Economy, and Decision Making. Edited by Robert J. Art and Robert Jervis. 2nd ed. Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman, 1985, 510-526.
A classic discussion of the delusions to which states are prone. Is Jervis' list of myopias a good one? Do they arise from the psychological sources he stresses, or are other causes at work?

Jervis, Robert. Perception and Misperception in International Politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976, 58-84.
Some say conflict is best resolved by the carrot, while using the stick merely provokes; others would use the stick, warning that using the carrot ("appeasement") emboldens others to make more demands. Who's right? Probably both--but under what circumstances? and how can you tell which circumstances you are in?

Morgenthau, Hans J. "The Purpose of Political Science." In A Design for Political Science: Scope, Objectives, and Methods. Edited by James C. Charlesworth. Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1966, 69-74.
Are scholars part of the solution or part of the problem? An eminent professor of international relations says his colleagues are gutless wonders who won't tell the state or society when they are wrong.

Pearson, David. "The Media and Government Deception." Propaganda Review, Spring 1989, 6-11.
Pearson thinks the American press is obedient to official views, and afraid to criticize. Antiestablishment paranoia or the real picture?

Schelling, Thomas C. "The Dynamics of Mutual Alarm." In Arms and Influence. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1966, 221-251.
The classic statement of "stability theory," which frames the dangers the arise with a first-strike advantage.

Wallensteen, Peter, and Margaret Sollenberg. "Armed Conflict 1989-99." Journal of Peace Research 37, no. 5, September 2000, 635-649.
Right now nearly all wars are civil wars. Will this pattern persist?

Ziegler, David. "Disarmament." Chap. 15 in War, Peace, and International Politics. 2nd ed. Boston: Little, Brown, 1981, 249-267.
A basic discussion of a modest proposal: tossing the weapons in the ocean. A good idea?

Zimmerman, William. "Yugoslav Disintegration, Social and Economic Change, and Balkan Transformation."  (Unpublished manuscript, November 1991), Table 5: "National Identity and Perceptions of National Inequality in Croatia."
The Croats and Serbs of Croatia inhabited the same country but different realities. Did this help cause the Serb-Croat war of 1991-95? What if the gulf between their perceptions had been narrower?

For your optional delectation see also John Mueller's collection of predictions, "Various Shapes of Things to Come," appended to the course syllabus. Has our understanding of war made progress since the days of Henry Buckle, Randolph Bourne, and David Starr Jordan?
And see also, for background, the appended data on war deaths from Sivard, Ruth. World Military and Social Expenditures. 28-31.

Cases: Wars and Crises

Geiss, Imanuel. German Foreign Policy, 1871-1914. Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1976, pages vii-ix, 75-83, 106-181, 206-207.
The key pages are 121-127, 142-150, 206-207--focus on these pages and read the rest more lightly. (Make sure not to miss the tale of the War Council of 8 December 1912, including Admiral Müller's notes on the Council). This book summarizes the views of the "Fischer School," which argues that German aggression was a prime cause of World War I. Others believe Fisher and Geiss blame Germany unduly. Who's right?

Goldhagen, Daniel Jonah. "Letter to the editor." New York Review of Books. February 6, 1997, 40.
A summary of Goldhagen's famous argument that Germany committed the holocaust because most Germans embraced an eliminationist anti-semitism. How could we test Goldhagen's argument?

Haass, Richard N. "It's Dangerous to Disarm." New York Times. December 11, 1996, p. A27.

Heinrichs, Waldo. The Threshold of War: Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Entry into World War II. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988, 141-142, 177, 246-247 (note 68).
Was the crucial American decision to cut off oil exports to Japan taken by a bureaucracy out of control? Utley and Heinrichs disagree. How can this mystery be unraveled?

Joll, James. Chap. 2 in Origins of the First World War. New York: Longman, 1984, 9-34.
A summary of the events of the strange and amazing July crisis.

Kitchen, Martin. "The Army and the Idea of Preventive War," and "The Army and the Civilians." Chap. 5 and 6 in The German Officer Corps, 1890-1914. Oxford: Clarendon, 1968, 96-142.
In Germany the army also purveyed the concept of preventive war, the notion that war was healthy and beneficial, and other exotic ideas; and within Germany it became a law unto itself--a "state within the state," in Gordon Craig's phrase.

Kristoff, Nicholas. "A Tojo Battles History, for Grandpa and for Japan." New York Times. April 22, 1999.
Mythmaking about Japan's role in World War II continues, stirring suspicion and anger elsewhere in Asia.

Langsam, Walter Consuelo. "Nationalism and History in the Prussian Elementary Schools Under William II." In Nationalism and Internationalism. Edited by Edward Mead Earle. NY: Columbia University Press 1950, 241-260.
German elementary and high schools were channels of nationalist propaganda.

Palmer, R.R., and Joel Colton. "The Crimean War." In A History of the Modern World. 7th ed. New York: Knopf, 1991, 544-546.
A standard textbook summary.

Palmer, R.R., and Joel Colton. A History of the Modern World. 7th ed. New York: Knopf, 1991, 798-799, 822-849.
This is a basic standard history of the events leading up to the war.

Palmer, R.R., and Joel Colton. "The Great War of the Mid-Eighteenth Century." In A History of the Modern World. 7th ed. New York: Knopf, 1991, 273-285.
This is a standard textbook summary of events. Please focus on 278-281, dealing with the outbreak of the Franco- British war.

Palmer, R.R., and Joel Colton. "The First World War." In A History of the Modern World. 7th ed. New York: Knopf, 1991, 695-718. 
This is assigned to provide basic background for non-aficionados of WWI.

Paterson, Thomas G., J. Gary Clifford, and Kenneth Hagan. American Foreign Policy: A History Since 1900. Lexington: D.C. Heath, 1983, 471-480, 519-539, 546-563.

Sagan, Scott. "The Origins of the Pacific War." In The Origins and Prevention of Major Wars. Edited by Robert I. Rotberg and Theodore K. Rabb. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988, 323-352.

Smoke, Richard. "The Crimean War." In War: Controlling Escalation. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977, 147-194.
A good synopsis of the strange events leading up to the outbreak of this war.

Smoke, Richard. "The Seven Years War." In War: Controlling Escalation. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977, 195-236.
Smoke's chapter is a good historical synopsis of this war. What general theories of war causes does his account support? How might this war have been prevented? By whom?

Utley, Jonathan G. Going to War with Japan, 1937-1941. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1985, 151-156.

Weiss, Peter, Eugene Carroll, and William Sloane Coffin. "Letters of response." New York Times. December 16, 1996, p. A14.

Wette, Wolfram. "From Kellog to Hitler (1928-1933). German Public Opinion Concerning the Rejection or Glorification of War." In The German Military in the Age of Total War. Edited by Wilhelm Deist. Dover: Berg, 1985, 71-99.
How Germans came to love war again so soon after the Marne and Verdun. What explains the bizarre developments Wette describes?

Ziegler, David. "The Balance of Terror." In War, Peace, and International Politics. 2nd ed. Boston: Little, Brown, 1981, 221-234.
A basic rundown of the issues.

Ziegler, David. "The Wars for German Unification." Chap. 1 in War, Peace, and International Politics. 2nd ed. Boston: Little, Brown, 1981, 7-20.
A (very) basic history.

The future of war

Kaysen, Carl. "Is War Obsolete?" In The Cold War and After: Prospects for Peace. Edited by Sean M. Lynn-Jones and Steven E. Miller. Expanded ed. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1993, 81-103.

Mearsheimer, John. "Back to the Future: Instability in Europe After the Cold War." In The Cold War and After: Prospects for Peace. Edited by Sean M. Lynn-Jones and Steven E. Miller. Expanded ed. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1993, 167-176, 187-192.

Nitze, Paul. "A Threat Mostly to Ourselves." New York Times. October 28, 1999, p. A25.
A call for nuclear disarmament from a prominent Cold War hawk. (In 1950 Nitze wrote NSC-68, the guiding plan for America's great Cold War military buildup.)

Ziegler, David. "World Government," and "Collective Security." Chaps. 8, 11 in War, Peace, and International Politics. 2nd ed. Boston: Little, Brown, 1981, 127-45, 179-203.
Many people have offered these answers. Do you think they would work? (Why haven't they been implemented yet?)

The Causes of War

The causes of war, general and theoretical works:

Blainey, Geoffrey. The Causes of War. New York: Free Press, 1973.

Bramson, Leon, and George W. Goethals, eds. War: Studies from Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology. Rev. ed. New York: Basic Books, 1968.

Brodie, Bernard. "Some Theories on the Causes of War." In War and Politics. New York: Macmillan, 1973, 276-340.

Cashman, Greg. What Causes War? An Introduction to Theories of International Conflict. New York: Lexington Books, 1999.

Dougherty, James E., and Robert L. Pfaltzgraff, Jr. Contending Theories of International Relations: A Comprehensive Survey. 3rd ed. New York: HarperCollins, 1990. Parts.

Falk, Richard A., and Samuel S. Kim. The War System: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Boulder: Westview, 1980.

Kagan, Donald. On the Origins of War and the Preservation of Peace. New York: Doubleday, 1994.

Kurtz, Lester, ed. Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and Conflict. 3 vols. San Diego: Academic Press, 1999.

Levy, Jack. "The Causes of War: A Review of Theories." In Behavior, Society, and Nuclear War. Vol. 1. Edited by Philip E. Tetlock, Jo L. Husbands, Robert Jervis, Paul C. Stern, and Charles Tilly. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989, 209-333.

Levy, Jack. "The Causes of War and the Conditions of Peace." In Annual Review of Political Science. Vol. 1. 1998, 139-165.

Midlarsky, Manus I., ed. Handbook of War Studies. Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1989.

Rotberg, Robert I., and Theodore K. Rabb, eds. The Origins and Prevention of Major Wars. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989.

Waltz, Kenneth N. Man, the State, and War. New York: Columbia University Press, 1954.

Arms and war:

Borg, Marlies Ter. "Reducing Offensive Capabilities--the Attempt of 1932." Journal of Peace Research 29, no. 2, 1992, 145-160.

Jervis, Robert. "Cooperation Under the Security Dilemma." World Politics 30, no. 2, January 1978, 167-214.

Levy, Jack S. "Declining Power and the Preventive Motivation for War." World Politics 40, no. 1, October 1987, 82-107.

Lynn-Jones, Sean M. "Offense-Defense Theory and its Critics." Security Studies 4, no. 4, Summer 1995, 660-694.

Schelling, Thomas. Arms and Influence. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1966. Parts.

Schelling, Thomas, and Morton Halperin. Strategy and Arms Control. New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1961. Parts.

Misperception:

Janis, Irving L. Victims of Groupthink . Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1972.

Jervis, Robert. "War and Misperception." In The Origins and Prevention of Major Wars. Edited by Robert I. Rotberg and Theodore K. Rabb. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989, 101- 126.

Jervis, Robert. "Hypotheses on Misperception." World Politics 20, no. 3, April 1968, 454-479, also reprinted in Power, Action and Interaction. Edited by George H. Quester. Boston: Little, Brown, 1971, 104- 132.

May, Ernest R. "Lessons" of the Past: The Use and Misuse of History in American Foreign Policy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973.

Wildavsky, Aaron. "The Self-Evaluating Organization." Public Administration Review. September/October 1972, 509- 520.

Gender and war:

Cohn, Carol. "Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals." Center for Psychological Studies in the Nuclear Age, 1987, 1- 33, also reprinted in Signs 12, no. 4, Summer 1987, 687-718.

Forcey, Linda Rennie. "Feminist and Peace Perspectives on Women." In Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and Conflict. Edited by Lester Kurtz, 3 vols. San Diego: Academic Press, 1999, 2:13- 20.

Held, Virginia. "Gender as an Influence on Cultural Norms Relating to War and the Environment." In Cultural Norms, War and the Environment. Edited by Arthur H. Westing, New York: Oxford University Press, 1988, 44- 51.

Hunter, Anne E., ed. On Peace, War, and Gender: A Challenge to Genetic Explanations. New York: The Feminist Press, 1991.

Ruddick, Sara. Maternal Thinking: Toward a Politics of Peace. Boston: Beacon Press, 1995.

Tessler, Jodi Nachtwey, and Audra Grant. "Further Tests of the Women and Peace Hypothesis: Evidence from Cross-National Survey Research in the Middle East." International Studied Quarterly 43, no. 3, September 1999, 519-532.

Turpin, Jennifer. "Women and War." In Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and Conflict. Edited by Lester Kurtz, 3 vols. San Diego: Academic Press, 1999, 3:801- 813.

Zalewski, Marysia, and Jane Parpart, eds. The "Man" Question in International Relations. Boulder: Westview, 1997.

Militarism:

Berghahn, Volker R. Militarism: The History of an International Debate, 1861-1979. New York: St. Martins, 1982.

Brodie, Bernard. War and Politics . New York: Macmillan, 1973, 479-496.

Bucholz, Arden. "Militarism." In Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and Conflict. Edited by Lester Kurtz. 3 vols. San Diego: Academic Press, 1999, 2:423- 433.

Burk, James. "Military Culture." In Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and Conflict. Edited by Lester Kurtz. 3 vols. San Diego: Academic Press, 1999, 2:447- 462.

Cobden, Richard. "The Three Panics." In Political Writings of Richard Cobden. Edited by Naomi Miller. 2 vols. New York: Garland Publishing, 1973. 2: 540-705.

Heise, Juergen Arthur. Minimum Disclosure: How the Pentagon Manipulates the News. New York: W.W. Norton, 1979.

McLauchlan, Gregory. "Military-Industrial Complex, Contemporary Significance," Edited by Lester Kurtz. 3 vols. San Diego: Academic Press, 1999, 2:475- 486.

Rourke, Francis E. Bureaucracy and Foreign Policy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972, 18- 40.

Shearer, Derek. "The Pentagon Propaganda Machine." In The Pentagon Watchers . Edited by Leonard Rodberg and Derek Shearer. New York: Anchor, 1970, 99-142.

Vagts, Alfred. Defense and Diplomacy. New York: Kings Crown, 1956, 263-377,477- 490.

See also representative writings on war and international affairs by military officers, e.g., Friedrich von Bernhardi, Ferdinand Foch, Giulio Douhet, Nathan Twining, Thomas Powers, and Curtis LeMay.

Nationalism - general works:

Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. Rev. ed. London: Verso, 1991.

Evera, Stephen Van. "Hypotheses on Nationalism and War." International Security 18, no. 4, Spring 1994. 5-39.

Gellner, Ernest. Nations and Nationalism. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983.

Greenfeld, Liah. Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992.

Hobsbawm, E.J. Nations and Nationalism Since 1780. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Posen, Barry R. "Nationalism, the Mass Army, and Military Power." International Security 18, no. 2, Fall 1993, 80-124.

Smith, Anthony D. The Ethnic Origins of Nations. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986.

Smith, Anthony D. Theories of Nationalism. 2nd ed. New York: Harper & Row, 1983.

Snyder, Louis L. Encyclopedia of Nationalism. New York: Paragon House, 1990.

Nationalist mythmaking:

Dance, E.H. History the Betrayer: A Study in Bias. London: Hutchinson, 1960.

Fitzgerald, Frances. America Revised: History Schoolbooks in the Twentieth Century. Boston: Little, Brown, 1979.

Hayes, Carlton J.H. "The Propagation of Nationalism." In Essays on Nationalism. New York: Macmillan, 1926, 61-92.

Kennedy, Paul M. "The Decline of Nationalistic History in the West, 1900- 1970." Journal of Contemporary History 8, no. 1, January 1973, 77-100.

Lewis, Bernard. History: Remembered, Recovered, Invented. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975.

Shafer, Boyd C. Faces of Nationalism. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972.

Zinn, Howard. The Politics of History. Boston: Beacon, 1970, 5-34, 288-319.

Democratic peace theory, dictatorial peace theory:

Andreski, Stanislav. "On the Peaceful Disposition of Military Dictatorships." Journal of Strategic Studies 3, no. 3, December, 1980, 3-10.

Brown, Michael E., Sean M. Lynn- Jones and Steven E. Miller, eds. Debating the Democratic Peace: An International Security Reader. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996.

Gleditsch, Nils Petter. "Democracy and Peace." Journal of Peace Research 29, no. 4, 1992, 369-376.

Gleditsch, Nils Petter. "Peace and Democracy." In Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and Conflict. Edited by Lester Kurtz. 3 vols. San Diego: Academic Press, 1999.

Maoz, Zeev, and Bruce Russett. "Normative and Structural Causes of Democratic Peace, 1946-1986." American Political Science Review 87, no. 3, September 1993, 624-638.

Human instinct theories of war:

Brown, Seyom. Causes and Prevention of War. 2nd ed. New York : St. Martin's Press, 1994, 9-15.

Dougherty and Pfaltzgraff. Contending Theories of International Relations. 3rd ed. New York: HarperCollins, 1990, 274-288.

Freud, Sigmund. "Why War?" In War: Studies from Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology. Edited by Leon Bramson and George W. Goethals. Rev. ed. New York: Basic Books, 1968, 71-80.

James, William. "The Moral Equivalent of War." In War: Studies from Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology. Edited by Leon Bramson and George W. Goethals. Rev. ed. New York: Basic Books, 1968, 21-31.

Kim, Samuel S. "The Lorenzian Theory of Aggression and Peace Research: A Critique." In The War System: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Edited by Richard A. Falk and Samuel S. Kim. Boulder: Westview, 1980, 82-115.

McDougall, William. "The Instinct of Pugnacity." In War: Studies from Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology. Edited by Leon Bramson and George W. Goethals. Rev. ed. New York: Basic Books, 1968, 33- 43.

Mead, Margaret. "Warfare is Only an Invention, Not a Biological Necessity." In War: Studies from Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology. Edited by Leon Bramson and George W. Goethals. Rev. ed. New York: Basic Books, 1968, 269-274.

Russett, Bruce, William Anholis, Carol R. Ember, Melvin Ember, and Zeev Maoz. Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.

Somit, Albert. "Humans, Chimps, and Bonobos: The Biological Bases of Aggression, War, and Peacemaking." In Journal of Conflict Resolution 34, no. 3, September 1990, 553-582.

Waltz, Kenneth N. Man, the State, and War. New York: Columbia University Press, 1954, 16-79.

Civil war, its control:

Henderson, Errol A. "Civil Wars." In Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and Conflict. 3 vols. Edited by Lester Kurtz. San Diego: Academic Press, 1999, 1: 279-288.

Henderson, Errol A. "Ethnic Conflict and Cooperation," In Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and Conflict. 3 vols. Edited by Lester Kurtz. San Diego: Academic Press, 1999, 1: 751-764.

Kumar, Radha. "The Troubled History of Partition." Foreign Affairs 76, no. 1, January/February 1997, 22-34.

Montville, Joseph V., ed. Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies. New York: Lexington Books, 1991.

Sisk, Timothy D. Power Sharing and International Mediation in Ethnic Conflicts. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 1996.

Negotiation & diplomacy:

Cohen, Raymond. "The Rules of the Game in International Politics." In International Studies Quarterly 24, no. 1, March 1980, 129-50.

Fisher, Roger. International Conflict for Beginners. New York: Harper & Row, 1969.

Fisher, Roger, and William Ury. Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1981.

George, Alexander L. Forceful Persuasion: Coercive Diplomacy as an Alternative to War. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 1991.

Iklé, Fred Charles. How Nations Negotiate . Millwood, N.Y.: Kraus Reprint, 1982.

Nicolson, Harold. Diplomacy. London: Oxford University Press, 1964.

Mediation:

Bercovitch, Jacob. and David Wells. "Evaluating Mediation Strategies: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis." In Peace and Change 18, no. 1, January 1993, 3-25, and works cited therein.

Princen, Thomas. Intermediaries in International Conflict. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995.

Limited War:

Etzold, Thomas. "Clausewitzian Lessons for Modern Strategists." Air University Review. May/June 1980.

Smoke, Richard. War: Controlling Escalation. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977.

Arms races:

Cashman, Greg. What Causes War? An Introduction to Theories of International Conflict. New York: Lexington Books, 1999, 172-184.

Huntington, Susan G. "Arms Races: Prerequisites and Results." In The Use of Force. Edited by Robert J. Art and Kenneth N. Waltz. 3rd ed. New York: University Press of America, 1988, 637-670.

Sample, Susan G. "Arms Races and Dispute Escalation: Resolving the Debate?" In Journal of Peace Research 34, no. 1, February 1997, 7-22.

Historical Sources

General surveys of global international history include:

Gay, Peter, and R.K. Webb, Modern Europe. New York: Harper & Row, 1973.

Palmer, Robert R., and Joel Colton. A History of the Modern World. 7th ed. New York: Knopf, 1991.

Ropp, Theodore. War in the Modern World. New York: Collier, 1962.

For more sources see the bibibliography in Palmer and Colton. Another excellent bibliographic source is War and Society Newsletter: A Bibliographical Survey. Edited by Jürgen Förster, David French, David Stevenson and Russel Van Wyk. Munich: Militärgeschlichtliches Forschungsamt, annual since 1973; it lists articles and book chapters relevant to international relations and war.

General surveys of European international history:

Albrecht-Carrie, Rene. A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna. Rev. ed. New York: Harper & Row, 1973.

Hayes, Carlton J.H. Contemporary Europe Since 1870. New York: Macmillan, 1962.

Joll, James. Europe Since 1870: An International History. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 1990.

Taylor, A.J.P. Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848-1914. London: Oxford, 1971.

Also pertinent are the relevant books in four series of general histories:

1. The "Langer" series, published by Harper Torchbooks, 15-odd volumes covering western history since 1200, under the general editorship of William Langer (e.g. Raymond Sontag, A Broken World, 1919-1939 .)
2. The Longman's "General History of Europe" series, covering western history since Roman times, published by Longman, under the general editorship of Denys Hays (e.g. J.M. Roberts, Europe 1880-1945 .).
3. The Fontana "History of Europe" series, published by Fontana/Collins, covering history since the middle ages, under the general editorship of J.H. Plumb (e.g. J.A.S. Grenville, Europe Reshaped, 1848-78 .)
4. The "New Cambridge Modern History" and "Cambridge Ancient History" series, covering western history from the beginning.

The Seven Years War:

An overview:

Anderson, Fred. Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2000.

On the Franco-British conflict in the Seven Years War:

Black, Jeremy. The Origins of War in Early Modern Europe. Edinburgh: J. Donald, 1987.

Higonnet, Patrice. "The Origins of the Seven Years War." In Journal of Modern History 40, 1968, 57-90.

On the Prussian-Austrian-Russian-French war of 1756:

Gaxotte, Pierre. Frederick the Great. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1942, 175-229, 303-342.

Reiners, Ludwig. Frederick the Great. New York: Putnam, 1960, 89-121, 147-164.

Ritter, Gerhard. Frederick the Great. Berkeley: Univeristy of California Press, 1974, 73-148.

The Crimean War:

Goldfrank, David M. The Origins of the Crimean War. New York: Longman, 1994.

Palmer, Alan. The Banner of Battle: The Story of the Crimean War. New York: St. Martin's, 1987.

Rich, Norman. Why the Crimean War? A Cautionary Tale. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1985.

The Italian Wars of Independence:

Coppa, Frank J. The Origins of the Italian Wars of Independence. New York: Longman, 1992.

The Wars of German Unification:

Carr, William. The Origins of the Wars of German Reunification. White Plains, NY: Longman, 1991.

Craig, Gordon. The Politics of the Prussian Army. New York: Oxford University Press, 1964, 180-216.

Smoke, Richard. War: Controlling Escalation. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977, 80-146.

World War I:

Basic histories include:

Berghahn, V.R. Germany and the Approach of War in 1914. London: Macmillan, 1973.

Geiss, Imanuel. German Foreign Policy 1871-1914. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1976.

Joll, James. The Origins of the First World War. New York: Longman, 1984.

Lieven, D.C.B. Russia and the Origins of the First World War. New York: St. Martin's, 1983.

Tuchman, Barbara. The Guns of August. New York: McMillan, 1962.

Turner, Barbara. Origins of the First World War. London: Arnold, 1970.

Suveys of debates about the war's origins are:

Langdon, John W. July 1914: The Long Debate, 1918-1990. New York: St. Martin's, 1991.

Moses, John A. The Politics of Illusion: The Fischer Controversy In German Historiography. London: George Prior, 1975.

Other sources on the origins of the war include:

Albertini, Luigi. The Origins of the War of 1914. 3 vols. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980, reprint of 1952-1957 edition.
Albertini is chaotic, but essential reading for those researching World War I.

Fischer, Fritz. War of Illusions. New York: W.W. Norton, 1975.

Geiss, Imanuel, ed. July 1914: The Outbreak of the First World War: Selected Documents. New York: W.W. Norton, 1967.

Herwig, Holger H. The Outbreak of World War I: Causes and Responsibilities. 5th ed. Rev. Lexington: DC Heath, 1991.

Jarausch, Konrad H. The Enigmatic Chancellor: Bethmann Hollweg and the Hubris of Imperial Germany. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973.

Röhl, John C.G. The Kaiser and his Court: Wilhelm II and the Government of Germany. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1994, 162-190 (on the German "war council" of December 8, 1912 and related matters).

Schmitt, Bernadotte E. The Coming of the War: 1914. 2 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930.

Contemporary descriptions of the political climate in Germany are:

Archer, William., ed. 501 Gems of German Thought. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1916.

Bang, J.P. Hurrah and Hallelujah: The Teaching of Germany's Prophets, Professors and Preachers. New York: Doran, 1917.

Notestein, Wallace. Conquest and Kultur: Aims of Germans in Their Own Words. Washington: Committee on Public Information, 1917.

Thayer, William Roscoe, ed. Out Of Their Own Mouths. New York: Appleton, 1917.

Other works on themes pertinent to this course include:

Brodie, Bernard. War and Politics. New York: Macmillan, 1973, 1-28.

Clarke, I.F. Voices Prophesying War. London: Oxford University Press, 1966.

Coetzee, Marilyn Shevin. The German Army League: Popular Nationalism in Wilhelmine Germany. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.

Craig, Gordon. The Politics of the Prussian Army. London: Oxford University Press, 1964, 217-341.

Ritter, Gerhard. The Sword and the Scepter: The Problem of Militarism in Germany. 4 vols. Coral Gables, Fla.: University of Miami Press, 1969-73.

Ritter, Gerhard. The Schlieffen Plan: Critique of a Myth. London: Wolff, 1958.

Guilland, Antoine. Germany and Her Historians. New York: McBride, Nast, 1915.

Hayes, Carleton J.H. France: A Nation of Patriots. New York: Octagon, 1974.

Hull, Isabel. The Military Entourage of Kaiser Wilhelm II, 1888-1918. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1982.

Kitchen, Martin. "The Army and the Civilians." Chap. 6 in The German Officer Corps, 1890-1914. Oxford: Clarendon, 1968, 115-142.

Kohn, Hans. The Mind of Germany. New York: Scribner's, 1960. 251-305.

Knightley, Phillip. The First Casualty. New York: Quadrangle, 1975, 80-112 (on wartime press coverage)

Luvaas, Jay. The Military Legacy of the Civil War: The European Inheritance. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959.

McClelland, Charles. The German Historians and England. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971, 168-235.

Moses, John A. "Pan-Germanism and the German Professors 1914-1918." In Australian Journal of Politics & History 15, no. 3, December, 1969, 45-60.

Sagan, Scott. "1914 Revisited: Allies, Offense, and Instability." International Security 11, no. 2, Fall 1986, 151-176.

Snyder, Louis L. From Bismarck to Hitler. Williamsport: Bayard, 1935.

Snyder, Louis L. "Historiography" and "Militarism." Chap. 6 and Chap. 10 in German Nationalism: Tragedy of a People. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat, 1969.

Snyder, Jack. The Ideology of the Offensive: Military Decision Making and the Disasters of 1914. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984.

Taylor, A.J.P. War By Time-Table. London: Macdonald & Co., 1969.

Trachtenberg, Marc. "The Meaning of Mobilization in 1914." International Security 15, no. 3, Winter 1990/91, 120-150.

Travers, Tim. The Killing Ground: The British Army, The Western Front and the Emergence of Modern Warfare, 1900-1918. Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1987.

Travers, T.H.E. "Technology, Tactics and Morale: Jean de Bloch, the Boer War, and British Military Theory, 1900-1914." Journal of Modern History 51, no. 2, June 1979, 264-286.

Willems, Emilio. A Way of Life and Death: Three Centuries of Prussian-German Militarism: An Anthropological Approach. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1986.

Readable accounts of the war itself include:

Gilbert, Martin. The First World War. New York: Henry Holt, 1994.

Taylor, A.J.P. The First World War. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966.

On Versailles an introduction is:

Sharp, Alan. The Versailles Settlement: Peacemaking in Paris, 1919. New York: St. Martin's, 1991.

Wold War II in Europe:

Baldwin, Peter. "The Historikerstreit in Context," In Reworking the Past: Hitler, the Holocaust and the Historian's Debate. Edited by Peter Baldwin. Boston: Beacon, 1990, 3-37.

Bartov, Omer. Hitler's Army: Soldiers, Nazis, and the War in the Third Reich. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.

Bell, P.M.H. The Origins of the Second World War in Europe. New York: Longman, 1986.

Berman, Sheri. The Social Democratic Moment: Ideas and Politics in the Making of Interwar Europe. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998: ix-x, 176-200.

Carr, E.H. International Relations Between the Two World Wars. New York: Macmillan, 1947.

Edelheit, Hershel, and Abraham J. Edelheit. A World In Turmoil: An Integrated Chronology of the Holocaust and World War II. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1991.

Evans, Richard J. In Hitler's Shadow: West German Historians and the Attempt to Escape from the Nazi Past. New York: Pantheon, 1989.
 
Jäckel, Eberhard. Hitler in History. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1984.

Jäckel, Eberhard. Hitler's Worldview: A Blueprint for Power. Translated by Herbert Arnold. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981.

Kershaw, Ian. Hitler, 1889-1936: Hubris. New York: W.W. Norton, 1999.

Kohn, Hans. The Mind of Germany. New York: Scribner's, 1960.

Liddell-Hart, B. H. "Aggression and the Problem of Weapons." English Review 55, July 1932, 71-78.

Rich, Norman. Hitler's War Aims. New York: W.W. Norton, 1973.

Shirer, William L. Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1960.

Smith, Denis Mack. Mussolini's Roman Empire. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977.

Sontag, Raymond J. A Broken World, 1919-1939. New York: Harper & Row, 1973.

Spielvogel, Jackson J. Hitler and Nazi Germany: A History. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1996.

Stark, Gary D. Entrepreneurs of Ideology: Neoconservative Publishers in Germany, 1890-1933. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980.

Weinreich, Max. Hitler's Professors. New York: Yiddish Scientific Institute, 1946.

Zentner, Christian, and Friedemann Bedurftig, eds. The Encyclopedia of the Third Reich. Translated by Amy Hackett. New York: Macmillan, 1991.

The Pacific War:

Barnhart, Michael A. Japan Prepares for Total War. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987.

Barnhart, Michael A. "The Origins of the Second World War in Asia and the Pacific: Synthesis Impossible?" Diplomatic History 20, no. 2, Spring 1996, 241-260.

Butow, Robert J.C. Tojo and the Coming of the War. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1960.

Ienaga, Saburo. The Pacific War, 1931-1945. New York: Pantheon, 1978.

Jones, F.C. "The Military Domination of Japanese Policy, 1931-1945." In Soldiers and Governments. Edited by Michael Howard. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1957, 117-131.

Neumann, William L. America Encounters Japan. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1963, 184-289.

Pelz, Stephen E. Race to Pearl Harbor: The Failure of the Second London Naval Conference and the Onset of World War II. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974.

Sadao, Asada. "The Japanese Navy and the United States." In Pearl Harbor as History. Edited by Dorothy Borg and Shumpei Okamoto. New York: Columbia University Press, 1973, 225-259.

Schroeder, Paul W. The Axis Alliance and Japanese-American Relations, 1941. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1958.

Taylor, A.J.P. The Second World War. London: Hamilton Hamish, 1975.

The origins of the Cold War:

Gaddis, John Lewis. Russia, The Soviet Union and the United States. New York: John Wiley, 1978, 175-206.

Gaddis, John Lewis. The United States and the Origins of the Cold War 1941-1947. New York: Columbia University Press, 1972.

Gaddis, John Lewis. "The Emerging Post-Revisionist Synthesis on the Origins of the Cold War." Diplomatic History 7, no. 3, Summer 1983, 171-190.

The Korean War:

Baldwin, Frank. ed. Without Parallel: The American-Korean Relationship Since 1945. New York: Pantheon, 1974.

Brodie, Bernard. War and Politics. New York: Macmillan, 1973, 57-112.

Chen, Jian. China's Road to the Korean War: the Making of the Sino-American Confrontation. New York: Columbia University Press, 1994.

Christensen, Thomas J. "Threats, Assurances, and the Last Chance for Peace." In International Security 17, no. 1, Summer 1992, 122-154.

Christensen, Thomas J. Useful Adversaries: Grand Strategy, Domestic Mobilization, and Sino-American Conflict, 1947-1958. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996.

Cumings, Bruce. The Origins of the Korean War. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981.

Foot, Rosemary. The Wrong War: American Policy and the Dimensions of the Korean Conflict, 1950-1953. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985.

Halperin, Morton H. "The Korean War." In The Use of Force. Edited by Robert J. Art and Kenneth N. Waltz. 3rd ed. New York: University Press of America, 1988, 220-237.

Jervis, Robert. "The Impact of the Korean War on the Cold War." Journal of Conflict Resolution 24, no. 4, December 1980, 563-92.

Kaufmann, Burton I. The Korean War: Challenges in Crisis, Credibility, and Command. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986.

Lichterman, Martin. "To the Yalu and Back." In American Civil-Military Relations: A Book of Case Studies. Birmingham: University of Alabama Press, for the Twentieth Century Fund, 1963, 569-642.

Lowe, Peter. The Origins of the Korean War. New York: Longman, 1986.

McFarland, Keith D. The Korean War: An Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland, 1986.

Nathan, James A., and James K. Oliver. United States Foreign Policy and World Order. 3rd ed. Boston: Little, Brown, 1985, 113-156.

Paige, Glenn D. The Korean Decision, June 24-30, 1950. New York: Free Press, 1968.

Rees, David. Korea: The Limited War. Baltimore: Penguin, 1970.

Schaller, Michael. Douglas MacArthur: The Far Eastern General. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.

Simmons, Robert R. The Strained Alliance. New York: Free Press, 1975.

Spanier, John W. The Truman-MacArthur Controversy and the Korean War. New York: W.W. Norton, 1965.

Stueck, Jr,William W. Road to Confrontation: American Policy Toward China and Korea, 1947-1950. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1981.

Whiting, Allen. China Crosses the Yalu: The Decision to Enter the Korean War. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1960.

The Indochina War:

Brodie, Bernard. War and Politics. New York: Macmillan, 1973, 113-222.

Caputo, Philip. A Rumor of War. New York: Holt, Rinehard & Winston, 1977, is a vivid personal account by an American soldier.

Ellsberg, Daniel. Papers on the War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972.

Gelb, Leslie H., and Richard K. Betts. The Irony of Vietnam: The System Worked. Washington DC: Brookings, 1979.

Halberstam, David. The Best and the Brightest. Greenwich: Fawcett, 1972.

Herring, George C. America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950-1975. New York: Wiley, 1979.

Kahin, George McTurnan, and John W. Lewis. The United States in Vietnam. New York: Dial, 1969.

Kahin, George McTurnan. Intervention: How America Became Involved in Vietnam. New York: Knopf, 1986.

Shawcross, William. Sideshow: Kissinger, Nixon and the Destruction of Cambodia. New York: Pocket Books, 1979.

Short, Anthony. The Origins of the Vietnam War. New York: Longman, 1989.

The Peloponnesian War:

Croix, G.E.M. de Ste. The Origins of the Peloponnesian War. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1972.

Kagan, Donald. The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1981.

Kagan, Donald. The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1969.

The 1990-1991 Persian Gulf War:

Atkison, Rick. Crusade. New York: Random House, 1993.

Cigar, Norman. "Iraq's Strategic Mindset and the Gulf War: Blueprint for Defeat." Journal of Strategic Studies 25, no. 1, March 1992, 1-29.

George, Alexander L. "Epilogue: The Persian Gulf Crisis, 1990-1991." In Avoiding War: Problems of Crisis Management. Edited by Alexander L. George. Boulder: Westview, 1991, 567-576.

Karsh, Efraim. "Reflections on the 1990-91 Gulf Conflict." In Journal of Strategic Studies 19, no. 3, September 1996, 303-320.

Trainor, Bernard. The Generals' War: The Inside Story of the Conflict in the Gulf. Boston: Little, Brown, 1995.

Woodward, Bob. The Commanders. New York: Pocket Books, 1992.

The Cuban Missile Crisis:

Abel, Elie. The Missile Crisis. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1968.

Allison, Graham. Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis. Boston: Little, Brown, 1971.

Divine, Robert A., ed. The Cuban Missile Crisis. Chicago: Quadrangle, 1971.

Garthoff, Raymond. Reflections on the Cuban Missile Crisis. Rev. ed. Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1989.

Wohlstetter, Albert, and Roberta Wohlstetter. "Controlling the Risks in Cuba." in The Use of Force. Edited by Robert J. Art and Kenneth N. Waltz. 3rd ed. New York: University Press of America, 1988, 238-273.

On Soviet military policy Western analyses are:

Dinerstein, Herbert. War and the Soviet Union. New York: Praeger, 1962.

Douglass, Joseph, and Amoretta Hoeber. Soviet Strategy for Nuclear War. Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1979.

Garthoff, Raymond. Soviet Military Policy. New York: Praeger, 1966.

Garthoff, Raymond. Soviet Strategy in the Nuclear Age. New York: Praeger, 1958.

Garthoff, Raymond. The Soviet Image of Future War. Washington: Public Affairs Press, 1959.

Goure, Leon, Foy Kohler, and Mose L. Harvey. The Role of Nuclear Forces in Current Soviet Strategy. Miami: University of Miami Press, 1974.

Lambeth, Benjamin. "How To Think About Soviet Military Doctrine." In Soviet Strategy. Edited by John Baylis and Gerald Segal. Montclair, NJ: Allenheld, Osmun, 1981, 105-123.

Wolfe, Thomas. Soviet Power and Europe, 1945-1970. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1970.

Wolfe, Thomas. Soviet Strategy at the Crossroads. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1964.

Translated Soviet writings on this subject include:

Lomov, N.A. The Revolution in Military Affairs. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973.

Marxism Leninism on War and Army (no author). Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1972.

Sidorenko, A.A. The Offensive. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970.

Sokolovskiy, V.D. Soviet Military Strategy. New York: Crane Russak, 1968.

Contemporary wars:

Judah, Tim. "Kosovo's Road to War." Survival 41, no. 2, Summer 1999, 5-18.

Shearer, Derek. "Africa's Great War." Survival 41, No. 2, Summer 1999, 89-106.