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Syllabus

Learning Objectives

16.100 is a course about aerodynamics, i.e. the study of the flow of air about a body. In our case, the body will be an airplane, but much of the aerodynamics in this course is relevant to a wide variety of applications from sail boats to automobiles to birds. 16.100 has a set of learning objectives which you should always keep in your thoughts as the semester progresses. The entire course is structured to (hopefully) help you achieve these objectives. Specifically, students graduating from 16.100 will be able to:

1. Formulate and apply appropriate aerodynamic models to predict the forces on and performance of realistic three-dimensional configurations;

2. Assess the applicability of aerodynamic models to predict the forces on and performance of realistic three-dimensional configurations and estimate the errors resulting from their application;

3. Design and execute a computational and experimental aerodynamic analysis and design together with members of a team.

Comment on Aerodynamic Models

An aerodynamic model is simply a method to estimate the aerodynamic performance (e.g. the lift or drag) of an object (e.g. an airfoil, wing, or airplane). An aerodynamic model could be based on experiments, computation or theory but often lies in the middle ground using a judicious combination of all three approaches. For example, an aerodynamic model might be incompressible thin airfoil theory; or, an aerodynamic model might be incompressible thin airfoil theory with a skin friction drag estimate; or, an aerodynamic model might be a wind tunnel experiment at low speed with theoretical corrections for wall effects and higher speed flight conditions. In 16.100, a variety of aerodynamic models will be covered which could then be combined to produce a more complex model as dictated by the application. Specific aerodynamic models that students will encounter may vary slightly from semester-to-semester but will generally include: 2-D/3-D potential flows (incompressible to supersonic) including panel and vortex lattice methods; boundary layer methods including the effects of transition & turbulence; coupled inviscid-viscous models; 2-D/3-D Euler & Navier-Stokes computations; wind tunnel testing.


Measurable Outcomes

Students graduating from 16.100 will be able to:

1. Apply flow similarity, non-dimensional coefficients such as the lift and drag coefficient, and non-dimensional parameters such as the Mach number and Reynolds number in aerodynamic modeling of realistic configurations (homework, team project reports, exams)

2. Apply integral momentum conservation to explain the relationship between flow turning, the generation of lift on an airfoil, and the subsequent loss of lift upon stall (homework, exams)

3. Explain the sources of friction, induced, wave, and pressure drag (homework, exams)

4. Explain the motion and deformation of a fluid element using kinematics including the definition of shear strain, normal strain, vorticity, divergence, and the substantial derivative (homework, exams)

5. (a) Explain the concept of a laminar boundary layer including the definition of the displacement thickness, the momentum thickness, and the skin friction coefficient, and the importance of the Reynolds number in determining the presence and behavior of a boundary layer (homework, exams), and (b) Apply the integral boundary layer equations to describe the qualitative evolution of a laminar boundary layer including separation and to quantitatively estimate the local thickness and skin friction (homework, exams)

6. Explain the onset of turbulence in a boundary layer (i.e. transition) and the qualitative effects of turbulence on boundary layer evolution including the impact on velocity profile, skin friction coefficient, boundary layer thickness, and separation (homework, exams)

7. Estimate friction drag on 2-D and 3-D configurations by decomposing the geometry into patches and assuming appropriate local values of skin friction coefficients including the possibility of laminar or turbulent boundary layer conditions (homework, team project reports, exams)

8. Explain the basic elements (see Comment on Basic Elements below) of 2-D panel methods and 3-D vortex lattice methods (homework, exams)

9. Explain the basic elements of coupled inviscid-viscous models for 2-D airfoils (homework, exams)

10. (a) Explain the basic elements of thin airfoil potential flow models for 2-D subsonic and supersonic flows (homework, exams), and (b) Apply thin airfoil potential flow models to estimate the forces on airfoils in 2-D subsonic and supersonic flows (homework)

11. (a) Explain the basic elements of the lifting line model for high aspect ratio wings (homework, exams).
(b) Describe the dependence of lift and induced drag on geometry and performance parameters (e.g. aspect ratio, twist, camber distribution, wing loading, flight speed, etc) using the lifting line model (homework, exams).
(c) Apply the lifting line model to estimate lift, induced drag, and roll moments on high aspect ratio wings (homework).

12. Explain the basic elements of the finite volume approximation to the compressible Euler and Navier-Stokes equations (homework, exams)

13. (a) Explain the relationship between sound propagation and shock waves (exams).
(b) Describe the qualitative change in flow conditions (Mach number, pressure, temperature, total pressure, etc.) across shocks and expansion fans (exams).
(c) Estimate the change in flow conditions across shocks and expansion fans using shock-expansion theory (homework).
(d) Explain transonic drag rise including the critical Mach number and the use of wing sweep to delay drag rise (homework, exams).

14. Explain the use of wind tunnel testing in aerodynamic modeling focusing on the importance of flow similarity in scale testing and on the typical corrections (e.g. wall corrections) required to simulate flight conditions (homework, team project reports, exams)

15. Assess the ability and limitations of an aerodynamic model to estimate lift and drag (separated into friction, induced, wave, and pressure drag contributions) for a specific application (homework, team project reports, exams)

16. Apply linear and non-linear sensitivity analysis to quantify the impact of error or uncertainty in aerodynamic predictions on the prediction of flight vehicle performance (homework, team project reports)

17. Contribute substantially as an individual to the design and execution of a computational and experimental aerodynamic analysis of realistic 3-D configuration together with members of a team (team project reports)

Comment on Basic Elements

The basic elements of a model includes the critical features which produce a valuable predictive method. For example, consider a 2-D panel method. The basic elements would include: all of the underlying assumptions of incompressible, potential flow; the discretization of an airfoil geometry into a set of line segments on which potential flow solutions are distributed; the satisfaction of flow tangency at panel control points; the global influence of an individual panel on all other panels; the imposition of the Kutta condition; etc. However, the basic elements would not include the more detailed aspects of the method which while important, are not critical to understanding how the method works. In the 2-D panel method example, it would not include the details of the calculation of the influence coefficient of a general source/vortex/doublet panel; the solution of the large linear system of equations; etc.


General Pedagogy and Assessment Strategy

The skills to be gained in this course are basically of three types:

  • Quantitative or Analytical Skills
  • Qualitative or Conceptual Skills
  • Integrative Skills

For each skill, a different pedagogical and assessment strategy is used. Analytical skills are taught and/or assessed through the textbook reading, homework assignments, the final exam, and, to a lesser extent, the team project. Conceptual skills are taught and/or assessed through in-class conceptual questions, the oral exams, and, to a lesser extent, the project and the final exam. Integrative skills are taught and/or assessed through the project and final exam, to a lesser extent, the homework and oral exams.

Grades will be based upon the following weightings:

25% Homework

30% Oral Exams (15% each)

15% Written Final Exam

15% Interim Project Report*

15% Final Project Report*

* Each student's total grade on the project reports will be based on a team grade and an individual grade. The team grade will be 20% of the project report grade and will be based on the quality of the report as a whole. The individual grade will be 80% of the project report grade and will be based on the individual student's contribution to the team effort. This individual contribution will be assessed from three sources: (1) instructor interactions with the teams throughout the semester, (2) written evaluations by all team members of the contributions of each team member (including self-evaluations), and (3) delineation within the written report of an individual's contributions.

Roughly, the final letter grades will be assigned as follows:

A: 90 – 100 C: 70 – 80 F: 0 – 60

B: 80 – 90 D: 60 – 70


Reading, Homework Assignments and Late Policy

Students are expected to complete assigned reading prior to discussion of the topics in class. The homework will be largely based on the assigned reading material with some problems based on difficult material from previous reading and lectures. The homeworks are individual efforts; while students are encouraged to discuss homework problems with each other, what is turned in must represent the student's own understanding of the material.

Past-due homework will generally not be accepted. For unusual circumstances, exceptions could be permitted.


Team Projects and Labs

Students will participate in an integrative team project developed with The Boeing Company concerning the aerodynamic analysis and design of a Blended-Wing Body (BWB) aircraft. Teams of approximately 5 students will be selected by the staff in the first two weeks of the semester. These teams will be responsible for completing the project and documenting their results in an interim and final project report. Past-due reports will not be accepted.

The weekly Labs on Wednesdays from 3-5pm will be held in the electronic classroom and will be largely devoted to times for the teams to work with each other. The staff will be present to help answer questions, assist in using software, etc. Attendance is expected for these work sessions.


Oral Exams

Two oral exams will be given during the semester. The purpose of the exams is to assess the level of conceptual understanding attained with respect to the measurable outcomes described previously. The exam will last one hour per student. The first oral will be given during the week of Lecture 19-24 and the second oral will be given during the week of Lecture 30-34. During the first 30 minutes of the exams, students will be given the questions that will form the basis of the oral exam and given the time to think through their responses. Then, the oral portion of the exam will be given during the final 30 minutes. The specific date and time for an individual student's exam will be determined by a lottery process based on the student's ranking of preferred times. The lottery for the exam will be completed and individual exam times scheduled no later than two weeks prior to the exams.


Final Exam

The final exam will be given during the final exam period. The purpose of the exam is to assess the primarily the quantitative and integrative skills of the student. The exam will be three hours in length and will be open book and notes. The problems on the exam will be very similar to homework problems.


Textbooks

The following book is recommended for purchase:

Anderson. Fundamentals of Aerodynamics. 3rd ed. McGraw Hill.

If you have the Second Edition from taking Unified, this is acceptable though you will be missing some of the reading material. The following books will also be used in the course and are on reserve in the Aero-Astro library:

Kuethe, and Chow. Foundation of Aerodynamics. 5th ed. John Wiley and Sons.

Bertin, and Smith. Aerodynamics for Engineers. 3rd ed. Prentice Hall.

Moran, An Introduction to Theoretical and Computational Aerodynamics. 1st ed. John Wiley and Sons.

Another useful book (also on reserve at the library) for its discussion of aircraft performance & dynamics would be:

Anderson. Introduction to Flight. 3rd ed. McGraw Hill.